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Agesilaus II

Background

Agesilaus II (c. 444 – 360 BCE) was one of the most prominent kings of Sparta, ruling from 398 to 360 BCE. His reign is notable for its military campaigns, diplomatic efforts, and the significant impact he had on Spartan politics and its hegemony in Greece. Agesilaus was a member of the Eurypontid dynasty, one of the two royal families of Sparta.

Early Life and Ascension to the Throne:

1. Background and Family:

   • Birth: Agesilaus was born around 444 BCE to King Archidamus II of the Eurypontid dynasty and Eupolia.
   • Disability: Despite being born with a physical disability (he had a limp), Agesilaus was trained in the rigorous Spartan military and educational system, the agoge, which prepared him for leadership.

2. Unexpected Ascension:

   • Succession: Agesilaus was not initially in line for the throne, as his older half-brother, Agis II, was king. However, after Agis II's death in 400 BCE, and due to the influential support of Lysander, a prominent Spartan general and statesman, Agesilaus was chosen as king over his nephew, Leotychidas, whose legitimacy was questioned.

Reign and Military Campaigns:

1. Persian Campaigns:

   • Asia Minor: One of Agesilaus's first major military campaigns was in Asia Minor. In 396 BCE, he was sent to the region to assert Spartan influence and support the Greek cities against the Persian Empire.
   • Initial Successes: Agesilaus achieved several victories against Persian forces and demonstrated his military acumen. However, his campaign was cut short due to political developments back in Greece.

2. Corinthian War (395–387 BCE):

   • Conflict in Greece: The Corinthian War erupted between Sparta and a coalition of other Greek city-states, including Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, backed by Persian support.
   • Tactics and Battles: Agesilaus returned from Asia Minor to lead Spartan forces in Greece. Despite several successes, the war dragged on, highlighting the challenges Sparta faced in maintaining its dominance.
   • King's Peace: The war ended with the Peace of Antalcidas (also known as the King's Peace) in 387 BCE, brokered by Persia, which saw Sparta recognizing Persian control over the Greek cities in Asia Minor in exchange for Persian support in securing Spartan hegemony in Greece.

3. Theban Conflict:

   • Rivalry with Thebes: Agesilaus had a longstanding enmity with Thebes, which culminated in several conflicts. Notably, he led Spartan forces against Thebes in the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE.
   • Defeat at Leuctra: The battle resulted in a significant defeat for Sparta, marking the end of its dominance in Greece. The Theban general Epaminondas's innovative tactics led to a decisive victory, undermining Spartan military prestige.

Diplomatic and Political Efforts:

1. Diplomacy:

   • Alliances and Rivalries: Agesilaus was active in Spartan diplomacy, forming and dissolving alliances as needed to maintain Spartan influence. His efforts often focused on countering Persian power and managing relationships with other Greek states.

2. Internal Politics:

   • Influence in Sparta: Agesilaus wielded considerable influence within Spartan politics, often guiding the state's decisions and policies. His leadership style and decisions were sometimes controversial but reflected his commitment to Spartan interests.

Personal Qualities and Legacy:

1. Leadership and Character:

   • Military Acumen: Agesilaus was known for his strategic and tactical skills, earning respect as a capable military leader despite his physical disability.
   • Stoicism and Simplicity: His personal conduct reflected Spartan ideals of stoicism and simplicity. He often lived modestly and led by example, embodying the values of Spartan society.

2. Historical Assessment:

   • Controversial Figure: Agesilaus's reign was marked by both achievements and setbacks. While he expanded Spartan influence and demonstrated remarkable leadership, his policies and military decisions also contributed to Sparta's eventual decline.
   • Plutarch's Biography: The ancient biographer Plutarch wrote about Agesilaus in his "Parallel Lives," comparing him to Roman leaders and highlighting his virtues and flaws.

Conclusion:

Agesilaus II remains a significant figure in ancient Greek history, remembered for his military prowess, political acumen, and commitment to Spartan values. His reign encapsulates the complexities of Spartan hegemony in the 4th century BCE, illustrating both the strengths and vulnerabilities of one of Greece's most iconic city-states. Despite the eventual decline of Spartan power, Agesilaus's legacy endures as a testament to his leadership and the enduring spirit of Sparta.

Sources

Clough, Arthur Hugh (1867), "Agesilaus II", in Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, pp. 69–70

Cartledge, Paul Anthony (1996), "Agesilaus II", in Hornblower, Simon, Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Agesilaus from Livius.Org

Xenophon, Hell. iii. 3, to the end, Agesilaus

Xenophon, Agesilaus, ii. 26, 27

In Greek: Εἰ γάρ τι καλὸν ἔργον πεποίηκα, τοῦτό μου μνημεῖον ἔσται; εἰ δὲ μή, οὐδ' οἱ πάντες ἀνδριάντες

Diodorus Siculus, xiv. xv

Pausanias, Description of Greece iii. 97 10

Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos, in vita

Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica

Smith, William, ed. (1870). "article name needed". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

Cartledge, Paul. Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.

Cawkwell, G.L. "Agesilaus and Sparta." The Classical Quarterly 26 (1976): 62-84.

David, Ephraim. Sparta Between Empire and Revolution (404-243 BC): Internal Problems and Their Impact on Contemporary Greek Consciousness. New York: Arno Press, 1981.

Forrest, W.G. A History of Sparta, 950-192 B.C. 2d ed. London: Duckworth, 1980.

Hamilton, Charles D. Agesilaus and the Failure of Spartan Hegemony. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991.

Hamilton, Charles D. Sparta's Bitter Victories: Politics and Diplomacy in the Corinthian War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979.

Plutarch. Agesilaus. In Plutarch's Lives, Translated by Bernadotte Perrin, 11 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959-1967.

Wylie, Graham, "Agesilaus and the Battle of Sardis" Klio 74 (1992): 118-130.

Xenophon. A History of My Times (Hellenica), Translated by George Cawkwell. Boston: Penguin Books, 1966.